Hard money commercial loans are becoming more prevalent as borrowers feel the pinch of the credit crisis and find that traditional sources, such as their local banks will not approve their loan request. Some borrower are often surprised, maybe shocked to receive the notice that their loan has been “called” due to the banks desire to lighten its exposure. As of April 2008, it’s estimated the turn down rate from traditional banks to be as high as 90%… The void is being filled, to a degree, by hard money commercial loans.The positives are that the borrowers enjoys less red tape, closing often take as short as 2 -3 weeks and in general a more “common sense” underwriting mindset prevails. Despite the positives, borrowers still normally rely on this type of financing only as an option when they cannot get conventional financing; and for good reason. The increase in speed and flexibility with underwriting comes at price for the borrower with interest rates in the 12-16% range and front end points from 3-6%. In addition the loan will normally not be extended beyond 24 to 36 months.Why would anyone agree to such terms?1. They have no other options or2. Despite the high rate and points the overall deal makes sense for their situation.Here are two examples where it made sense for the borrower to go forward with a hard money commercial loan.Denver, Colorado. Small retail building that had been owned by the same owner for 30 years where he occupied his business. In short, despite the borrower’s lack of development and real estate management experience he wanted to move his business out and convert the property into a 4 unit rental property. To accomplish this he needed to completely gut the property, alter the facade and make changes to the parking lot. And of course, he needed a lot of money to accomplish this.His problems where many: First of all he had no development experience, his credit was in the low 500′s, had almost no liquidity AND his business had been losing money for the last 2 years… In short he had no chance of getting conventional financing.What he did have was a solid building right outside of downtown that he owned free and clear. The loan that we put together was at 50% loan to value with an 18 month payment reserve. Meaning the first 18 month “were” prepaid” taken out of the loan proceed and put into a 3rd party escrow account. This was the only way the lender would agree to the deal which made sense because the borrower didn’t have any cash to make the monthly payments! It also gave him sufficient time to renovate and lease out the property. The payment reserve was a huge relief to the borrower as well, because he knew all too well his cash flow situation.Metro Detroit. A local business that owned a large light industrial building with a retail component was shocked by their existing bank. Despite the borrower 15 year loyalty to its banks and never being late on one payment their loan was “called” meaning forced balloon (yes banks can do this; there is a call provision in almost all commercial bank mortgages). The rationale behind this was the bank did not like the industry the business was in (tier 3 automotive supplier) and didn’t like the building type. Industrial properties in metro Detroit continue to get hammered as the market slides with the automotive industry.As the business begun to search for options they discover that1. no conventional source wanted their loan and2. that the few that showed some interest had to have a full recourse loan, meaning full personal guarantee.Though the CEO had a 2% ownership, the rest was controlled through a family trust. The CEO was not willing to sign off and none of the family was willing to either. Many private money lenders want full recourse, but this is a negotiable item. And as long as the loan to values are below 60 – 50% you can often find a source. So the borrower decided to go the hard money route with a 3 year interest only loan. They refinanced the mortgage as well pulled out an additional $700,000 to consolidate date, which greatly improved their cash flow situation.These are typically scenarios, others include foreclosures, distressed properties, recent bankruptcies, lack of existing cash flow, partnership buy outs, land contract refinances, “need for speed,” etc. Bottom line, hard money commercial loans are expensive but can be a viable option.
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How To Be A Jack Of Many Trades – And Why It Can Make You Succeed More Often!
Not many people have the ability to competently carry out multiple tasks simultaneously, and deliver satisfactory results on each task – consistently. Fewer still are comfortable with continually learning to do many things at the same time. Yet, in every society we find there are always a select few who seem to thrive doing just that.Expressions in daily conversation coined to describe such persons include “man-of-many-parts”, “one-who-wears-many-hats”, “multi-talented”, “multi-skilled”, “versatile” etc. This article describes an unusual – but well established – practice in which certain individuals intelligently combine their(sometimes self-taught) skills in a variety of related fields to successfully – and repeatedly – deliver desired results( to employers), or products and services(to clients/ customers).Below, I describe my personal experiences as a Multipreneurial Employee in Guinness between 1995 and 2001.———————————————-I recall vividly that as a fresh Graduate Management Trainee in the large corporate multinational(Guinness Nigeria Plc) where I worked, my keen interest in computers initially attracted plenty of criticism from some of my peers and senior colleagues.On numerous occasions, they seized the opportunity of little shortcomings I displayed in doing my job as a Shift Brewer, to insinuate that the time I spent working on the computer (something not at that time in widespread use) prevented me from mastering the essential practical requirements to successfully function as a brewer.In time, I was of course able to demonstrate beyond any shred of doubt that their assumptions were wrong. Not only did I mature into a competent brewer/Packaging shift manager (one who got repeated secondments to other departments to fill sudden vacancies while replacements were sought), I also went on to use my spreadsheet programming skills to develop over five customised spreadsheet applications – which were formally adopted for use.My abilities got me noticed early by senior management, so that within two years of joining the company, I was already actively involved, and even responsible for collation/preparation of brewery-level reports. These were activities which required a good understanding of key manufacturing performance parameters, as well as sound knowledge of various calculations used to estimate monetary gains/losses in brewing, for decision-making. In the process, I got to know/work closely with senior managers in my function, well ahead of my peers.All of that would go a long way to prepare me for later achievements like challenging existing brewing performance parameters calculations; proposing modifications to some, and even developing my own formula for – what I considered – better estimation of brewing performances, which I called “% Brewhouse Efficiency” formula. This formula was given consideration by the company’s senior management for 6 months, with brewery tests being done using it. (You can learn more about how I was able to record these achievements in my article titled Achieve Recognition and Attract Career Advancement Opportunities By Being A Change Agent).Yet I did all this while still doing my regular job as a brewer. I was so proficient in doing them, that I felt no strain combining them with my normal job. Looking back, and even considering the sources from which criticism for my multidisciplinary approach came, I have come to the conclusion that many times people assess the “workability” of what another person is trying to achieve from their own mind frame.If they think it be difficult for them to do, then they believe it would be so for the other person. What they forget is that we are not all alike. In fact there are certain people who cannot stay doing just one single thing for long. They would actually become demotivated, inefficient, and even bored. As one Multipreneur – Gary Havener – put it, “I guess I just have a short attention span”.———————————————-Multipreneurs Are Everywhere – Even YOU Could Be One(& Not Know It)!1. Multipreneurs In Sports: We cannot all be the same. It is true that when you chase two rats at the same time, you could end up losing both. But in life, the fact is that there will be some people who can learn how to chase and catch both rats:-).An event like the Decathlon(and the Heptathlon!) gives the few amongst us who fail to fit into the “normal” profile expected, a place to belong. As I said previously, not everyone will like to stick with just one sport. Some people get their greatest satisfaction – and are even at their productive best – when they are able to switch from one activity to another, uninhibited.Daley Thompson was Decathlon champion for more than a decade, but he was not a Jack of all trades. He was instead what I call a Jack of Many Trades(TM) or an Intelligent Multipreneur. Young Daley had an aptitude for combining many activities – and tended not to really be fully engaged if he had to focus on just one. His teachers in school thought this meant he had ADD(Attention Deficit Disorder), but the parents(thankfully) refused to accept that and challenged the school to engage the young child’s energies appropriately. The rest is history.2. YOU as an Involuntary Multipreneur: Now, what about you? Did you not have to study up to ten or twelve different subjects in school before you could finish and move to University? Subjects you did not like, and knew you would not continue after school! Why doesn’t someone ask what the point of having children study subjects they are not likely to use after they leave school is about? If it had been a pleasant one, that experience in school could probably have caused you to develop an interest in multipreneuring.3. How much should YOUR President know?: Would you vote for a Presidential aspirant who demonstrates knowledge of only one or two areas of the economy/government claiming he cannot afford to take active interest in learning about the others because he is a specialist? I doubt it. Citizens of a country rightly expect that their president will be able to answer questions on ANY issue concerning the government or economy of the country. That’s why Presidential debates between aspirants are such a crucial part of the elections process in many societies.Presidents of countries, by the nature of their jobs, need to be multipreneurial in their mental dispositions. This is because they are answerable to an entire nation comprising widely differing groups of people with varying – and constantly changing – levels of unique interests and needs.4. Multipreneurs in Entertainment: John Travolta (as I learnt from watching an episode of Oprah Winfrey’s show) is a licensed airline pilot. But apart from that, he is proficient at a wide variety of other things. His job as an actor frequently requires him to acquire new knowledge/skills in order to successfully portray a character. Away from acting, those he meets in life will find him adept at doing many things – and consider him quite “cool”, and potentially useful to have/be around!A quick example. Imagine John is on a plane whose pilot suddenly has a coronary, and the co-pilot’s nerves fail him. With John around, there would still be hope for everyone on board! I know actors sometimes have stunt doubles who cover for them, but many times, they have to do it themselves.Steps To Becoming An Intelligent Jack Of Many Trades(TM)(or Multipreneur)But how does one draw the line here. At what point does doing something like this become a case of “Jack of all trades, master of none”?My answer is in two folds i.e. it depends. Firstly, if your objective is not to be a “master”, and only that you wish to achieve reasonably good proficiency in the disciplines you venture into, then the adage just mentioned should not bother you.For instance, when you decide to learn how to type your own letters/use the PC better, it does not mean that you will decide to become better than your secretary. What it could mean is that in the event that your secretary is unexpectedly absent from work, you will not be at a loss as to how to locate (for instance) the important memo she was typing yesterday on her PC, so as to finish it off, and send it out to those concerned on time.Secondly, you should not aim to become a “Jack of all trades”. That would be unwise, as it is not humanly possible to do so, and maintain efficiency in all at the same time. But, you can successfully become a “Jack Of Many Trades(TM)”, and be better of for it.To do the latter(i.e. become a “Jack Of Many Trades(TM)”), the simple steps below can be followed:1. Do some deep thinking/soul-searching about what exactly your personal goal(s) is(are) regarding your job or business interest(s).2. Decide what competencies (knowledge, attitudes and skills) you need to develop to achieve your chosen goal(s).3. Once you’ve done that, you then need to write out (and I do mean write!!) your PLAN to acquire, and productively use, the various competencies that you’ve identified.4. Next, you put the plan to work. Do whatever it is you have decided you need to do, in order to achieve the goal(s) you have chosen to pursue.Note: Since becoming a multipreneur will require you to progressively acquire new knowledge and skills about different activities, you can expect to routinely run through steps 1 to 4 every now and then.How Multipreneuring Can Make You Succeed More Often The following are some specific ways that Multipreneuring can help you.1. You fit more easily into different groups: Think back to many of the social events you have attended. How easily did you fit into a group of people who were as excited as you were about football or politics for instance? Very easily, I’m sure you’ll agree. A sound knowledge of key aspects of a specific area of interest can help you get the respect, admiration, and friendship/cooperation of others. You get instant empathy. People feel they know you.Now, imagine you were able to learn relevant things or acquire skills important to varied groups of people. Once you find yourself among each group, you can put your knowledge/skill to use. Very often, the effect would be instant. People would be drawn to you! How excited would you be if you were in Bulgaria to attend a conference, and met a delegate from France who spoke your language, having spent ten years in your country?Now think about it the other way round. What if YOU could learn to speak, read and write fluent French? What do you think would happen if you ran into an expatriate French couple just arrived in your country having difficulty communicating their intended destination to an Airport taxi driver? Chances are high that they would instantly engage you to help them out, and it is likely to be the beginning of a lasting friendship!I speak, read and write French having learnt it the hard way some years back(read my story in the article titled Achieving YOUR Goals IN SPITE OF Adversity – Two Short But True Stories That Tell HOW to learn how I did it). The benefits accruing to me from acquiring this skill since then convince me that what I have said here is correct.Also, my proficiency in developing automated spreadsheet solutions for use in the various departments I worked as a manager in Guinness, over time made me become close to key members of the brewery’s Information Technology team. This friendship got so good to the point that I often spent my free time in their offices, and at a point, some newcomers to the brewery even assumed I was an IT personnel.To top it, I often successfully secured the cooperation of the IT team to implement many of the spreadsheet solutions I developed. The automated spreadsheet-based Brewery training records database that I developed towards the ISO 9001 certification audits conducted by Standards Organisation of Nigeria – SON (in my capacity as Technical Training and Development Manager) was made accessible across the brewery intranet with the cooperation of my IT department “friends”.2. You are able to understand others in or outside the workplace: Too many instances have occurred in society, where people engaged in conflict simply because they did not understand each other’s points of view. One of the best ways to guard against this problem is by going out of your way to learn about the unique circumstances and challenges surrounding the next person.For instance back in Guinness, because I had a very strong background in Packaging and Brewing operations, having worked many times in both departments, I was frequently able to avert potential confrontations. For one thing, I knew many of the shift managers, shop floor operators and operations fairly well. So, when for instance, beer supply from my end (brewing) was short, I was often able to persuade the packaging operator/manager to send beer from the only remaining bottling tank to both bottling lines, till I and my men were able to solve the supply problem at our end. This helped us avert lost production hours, which often occurred when parties concerned remained intransigent.Incidentally, my understanding of the packaging operations enabled me diplomatically “punch holes” in initial objections to the workability of my proposal. We would all then laughingly agree to implement it, or a modified version. The book “How to win friends and influence people” by Dale Carnegie provides excellent advice on how to successfully get people to do what you want, and have them feeling good about it in the end. Buy and read it.3. Your perspective and horizon broadens: Your mind opens up. By the time you have successfully become a Multipreneur, your personal beliefs about what is “impossible” will have changed. As I like to joke in my talks, some people at this stage will be like the young boy who had always thought his father’s farm was the biggest there was – until he travelled to other places and discovered otherwise. You will be less willing to discourage others from challenging existing ways of doing things, and more disposed to exploring new possibilities.4. Your usefulness to your organisation(or clients) increases: So long as you have invested your time and energy in acquiring the right mix of knowledge and skills, it’s only a matter of time before your company’s decision makers(or current/prospective clients) begin to notice you. I say this however in the expectation that you will now not go and “hide your lamp under a bushel”.For instance, as a young brewer I (really) hated the various manual calculations (e.g. weighted averages to determine beer blending ratios for sometimes up to four bottling tanks!) so badly, that I developed an automated spreadsheet application to do the same thing. Not only did this solution lead to quicker estimation of needed beer blending volumes by the brewer, but the computer-generated beer parameters also showed significant positive correlation with the laboratory results obtained!As soon as my boss found out about the existence of that application, he promptly announced at a departmental meeting that it was to be formally adopted for use, and instructed that I train others to use it. (Read my article titled How To Turn A Major Blunder At Work Into A Career Advancement Opportunity to learn about the bad first night shift duty experience I had, which forced me to develop that spreadsheet solution).This happened for other solutions I developed for use in the brewery. Many times I actually started out to solve a personal problem I disliked about my job, but in the process, those doing that same job with me, (who had also been struggling with the problem) naturally found the solution I developed useful to themselves too – hence they adopted it readily. And I got acknowledged for it – via good appraisals, and many career advancement opportunities that subsequently followed.How Long Will “Success” Achievement Take? Now, this brings us to a reality that some people never want to accept. To achieve success, one must be ready to do what is required. In practicing multipreneuring, whether in business or paid employment, the person concerned must decide up front, that s/he will apply the principle of persistence.It would be naive for anyone to expect that as soon as s/he commences learning or doing something, success will immediately follow. If the world worked that way, then EVERY ONE of us would be a millionaire today!So, let’s be honest with ourselves here – it won’t be easy!!The fact is that you must follow the earlier enumerated steps to becoming a successful Jack Of Many Trades(TM). Select the vocations you wish to become proficient in. Study them. Practice what you learn. THEN apply them persistently (constantly reviewing/making needed adjustments), till you get the result(s) you desire.I spent many night shifts as a brewer combining supervision of the brewing plant operations with improving my typing speed using a Typing Tutor, and also working on different spreadsheet solutions on the office computer. One afternoon, the Brewery Manger’s secretary saw me typing and exclaimed: “Solagbade, you type so fast! What is your speed?” Neither she, nor a senior manager who made a habit of calling me “TK Computer” really knew how many hours of hard work I had put in, in my personal time, to become that good at those things.And if you recall, from my story, I made many blunders at work initially that caused others to criticise me for lacking mastery of my primary job because I spent(they felt) too much time on the computer.What they did not know was that even after they had gone home, I would often stay back in the brewery to learn directly from the process operators on duty, the rudiments of successfully managing the brewing process. Many times I would leave the brewery for my house as late as 1.00am in the morning, even though I had actually worked on morning shift, and closed at 2.00pm the previous day. You may not have to do what I did. But, you MUST pay your dues. If you do, you will get to a level of mastery that will make others marvel.Is It Not Better To Be Known For One Particular Thing?Someone once asked me if it would not be better to be known for one particular thing. My answer was that I do actually intend to be known for ONE thing which is my ability to engage in multiple, complementary vocations simultaneously and successfully, so long as I remain effective and efficient in doing them.I was able to do my job as brewer, and later Training and Technical Development Manager, then acting Production Manager, while continuing to utilise my proficiency in spreadsheets solutions development, to develop lasting solutions for data management and reporting problems everywhere I worked.I was so good at it, that I effortlessly implemented solutions to major problems in a way that surprised many others. For me, because I had spent so much of my free time(unknown to many) doing it, it was easy. For others, it looked like a lot of work. So, they were thinking about it from their perspective as people who were not as adept as I was. Of course, it felt like it would be difficult to combine such with a regular job – especially when one did not get to take time off to do it.I once watched an edition of Oprah Winfrey’s show in which Venus Williams was interviewed along with her sister, Serena. Both ladies were questioned about criticisms levelled against them by other Tennis stars for engaging in other vocations while still active in top-flight tennis. Venus owns her own fashion design company, and actually designs her own clothes. Serena had been appearing in some new films/movies playing leading roles.According to Oprah, Martina Navratilova had stated that the sisters were being arrogant by doing that, since it was “expected” that they, as professional tennis players, would concentrate on playing tennis – like all others. In response, Venus said (quite sensibly), that they believed it would be unwise to assume they would continue to do well in tennis indefinitely, and following their parents’ advice, decided to explore other vocations early on.SummarySo long as you are not getting inefficient from doing multiple tasks or acquiring multiple competencies, don’t let people tell you you’re a Jack-of-all-trades.I once read an article on career development, which advised people in paid employment to “Know A Little About Everything”, if they wish to get ahead on their jobs. In fact, most start-up entrepreneurs HAVE TO be that way for a major part of their start-up life, because they cannot afford(due to limited capital) to do otherwise! Companies – and even individuals – will in the future be looking for a one-stop solution to their needs, and will tend to settle for entrepreneurs(or employees) with proven multiple competencies.You can be a successful Jack Of Many Trades(TM), so long as you avoid crossing the not-so-thin line that leads to becoming a “Jack of all trades”. All you need do is intelligently decide on relevant competencies that will help you attain your personal/career advancement goals. Then acquire and put them to use in ways that benefit you, people around you, or the client/organisation you work for. The results you get will excite you perpetually!
Increasing Student Success Through Instruction in Self-Determination
An enormous amount of research shows the importance of self-determination (i.e., autonomy) for students in elementary school through college for enhancing learning and improving important post-school outcomes.
Findings
Research by psychologists Richard Ryan, PhD, and Edward Deci, PhD, on Self-Determination Theory indicates that intrinsic motivation (doing something because it is inherently interesting or enjoyable), and thus higher quality learning, flourishes in contexts that satisfy human needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness. Students experience competence when challenged and given prompt feedback. Students experience autonomy when they feel supported to explore, take initiative and develop and implement solutions for their problems. Students experience relatedness when they perceive others listening and responding to them. When these three needs are met, students are more intrinsically motivated and actively engaged in their learning.
Numerous studies have found that students who are more involved in setting educational goals are more likely to reach their goals. When students perceive that the primary focus of learning is to obtain external rewards, such as a grade on an exam, they often perform more poorly, think of themselves as less competent, and report greater anxiety than when they believe that exams are simply a way for them to monitor their own learning. Some studies have found that the use of external rewards actually decreased motivation for a task for which the student initially was motivated. In a 1999 examination of 128 studies that investigated the effects of external rewards on intrinsic motivations, Drs. Deci and Ryan, along with psychologist Richard Koestner, PhD, concluded that such rewards tend to have a substantially negative effect on intrinsic motivation by undermining people’s taking responsibility for motivating or regulating themselves.
Self-determination research has also identified flaws in high stakes, test focused school reforms, which despite good intentions, has led teachers and administrators to engage in precisely the types of interventions that result in poor quality learning. Dr. Ryan and colleagues found that high stakes tests tend to constrain teachers’ choices about curriculum coverage and curtail teachers’ ability to respond to students’ interests (Ryan & La Guardia, 1999). Also, psychologists Tim Urdan, PhD, and Scott Paris, PhD, found that such tests can decrease teacher enthusiasm for teaching, which has an adverse effect on students’ motivation (Urdan & Paris, 1994).
The processes described in self-determination theory may be particularly important for children with special educational needs. Researcher Michael Wehmeyer found that students with disabilities who are more self-determined are more likely to be employed and living independently in the community after completing high school than students who are less self-determined.
Research also shows that the educational benefits of self-determination principles don’t stop with high school graduation. Studies show how the orientation taken by college and medical school instructors (whether it is toward controlling students’ behavior or supporting the students’ autonomy) affects the students’ motivation and learning.
Significance
Self-determination theory has identified ways to better motivate students to learn at all educational levels, including those with disabilities.
Practical Application
Schools throughout the country are using self-determination instruction as a way to better motivate students and meet the growing need to teach children and youth ways to more fully accept responsibility for their lives by helping them to identify their needs and develop strategies to meet those needs.
Researchers have developed and evaluated instructional interventions and supports to encourage self-determination for all students, with many of these programs designed for use by students with disabilities. Many parents, researchers and policy makers have voiced concern about high rates of unemployment, under-employment and poverty experienced by students with disabilities after they complete their educational programs. Providing support for student self-determination in school settings is one way to enhance student learning and improve important post-school outcomes for students with disabilities. Schools have particularly emphasized the use of self-determination curricula with students with disabilities to meet federal mandates to actively involve students with disabilities in the Individualized Education Planning process.
Programs to promote self-determination help students acquire knowledge, skills and beliefs that meet their needs for competence, autonomy and relatedness (for example, see Steps to Self-determination by educational researchers Sharon Field and Alan Hoffman). Such programs also provide instruction aimed specifically at helping students play a more active role in educational planning (for example, see The Self-directed Individualized Education Plan by Jim Martin, Laura Huber Marshall, Laurie Maxson, & Patty Jerman).
Drs. Field and Hoffman developed a model designed to guide the development of self-determination instructional interventions. According to the model, instructional activities in areas such as increasing self-awareness; improving decision-making, goal-setting and goal-attainment skills; enhancing communication and relationship skills; and developing the ability to celebrate success and learn from reflecting on experiences lead to increased student self-determination. Self-determination instructional programs help students learn how to participate more actively in educational decision-making by helping them become familiar with the educational planning process, assisting them to identify information they would like to share at educational planning meetings, and supporting students to develop skills to effectively communicate their needs and wants. Examples of activities used in self-determination instructional programs include reflecting on daydreams to help students decide what is important to them; teaching students how to set goals that are important to them and then, with the support of peers, family members and teachers, taking steps to achieve those goals. Providing contextual supports and opportunities for students, such as coaching for problem-solving and offering opportunities for choice, are also critical elements that lead to meeting needs for competence, autonomy and relatedness and thus, increasing student self-determination.
How to Build a Better Educational System: Jigsaw Classrooms
The jigsaw classroom technique can transform competitive classrooms in which many students are struggling into cooperative classrooms in which once-struggling students show dramatic academic and social improvements.
Findings
In the early 1970s, in the wake of the civil rights movement, educators were faced with a social dilemma that had no obvious solution. All over the country, well-intentioned efforts to desegregate America’s public schools were leading to serious problems. Ethnic minority children, most of whom had previously attended severely under-funded schools, found themselves in classrooms composed predominantly of more privileged White children. This created a situation in which students from affluent backgrounds often shone brilliantly while students from impoverished backgrounds often struggled. Of course, this difficult situation seemed to confirm age-old stereotypes: that Blacks and Latinos are stupid or lazy and that Whites are pushy and overly competitive. The end result was strained relations between children from different ethnic groups and widening gaps in the academic achievement of Whites and minorities.
Drawing on classic psychological research on how to reduce tensions between competing groups (e.g., see Allport, 1954; Sherif, 1958; see also Pettigrew, 1998), Elliot Aronson and colleagues realized that one of the major reasons for this problem was the competitive nature of the typical classroom. In a typical classroom, students work on assignments individually, and teachers often call on students to see who can publicly demonstrate his or her knowledge. Anyone who has ever been called to the board to solve a long division problem – only to get confused about dividends and divisors – knows that public failure can be devastating. The snide remarks that children often make when their peers fail do little to remedy this situation. But what if students could be taught to work together in the classroom – as cooperating members of a cohesive team? Could a cooperative learning environment turn things around for struggling students? When this is done properly, the answer appears to be a resounding yes.
In response to real educational dilemmas, Aronson and colleagues developed and implemented the jigsaw classroom technique in Austin, Texas, in 1971. The jigsaw technique is so named because each child in a jigsaw classroom has to become an expert on a single topic that is a crucial part of a larger academic puzzle. For example, if the children in a jigsaw classroom were working on a project about World War II, a classroom of 30 children might be broken down into five diverse groups of six children each. Within each group, a different child would be given the responsibility of researching and learning about a different specific topic: Khanh might learn about Hitler’s rise to power, Tracy might learn about the U.S. entry into the war, Mauricio might learn about the development of the atomic bomb, etc. To be sure that each group member learned his or her material well, the students from different groups who had the same assignment would be instructed to compare notes and share information. Then students would be brought together in their primary groups, and each student would present his or her “piece of the puzzle” to the other group members. Of course, teachers play the important role of keeping the students involved and derailing any tensions that may emerge. For example, suppose Mauricio struggled as he tried to present his information about the atomic bomb. If Tracy were to make fun of him, the teacher would quickly remind Tracy that while it may make her feel good to make fun of her teammate, she is hurting herself and her group – because everyone will be expected to know all about the atomic bomb on the upcoming quiz.
Significance
When properly carried out, the jigsaw classroom technique can transform competitive classrooms in which many students are struggling into cooperative classrooms in which once-struggling students show dramatic academic and social improvements (and in which students who were already doing well continue to shine). Students in jigsaw classrooms also come to like each other more, as students begin to form cross-ethnic friendships and discard ethnic and cultural stereotypes. Finally, jigsaw classrooms decrease absenteeism, and they even seem to increase children’s level of empathy (i.e., children’s ability to put themselves in other people’s shoes). The jigsaw technique thus has the potential to improve education dramatically in a multi-cultural world by revolutionizing the way children learn.
Practical Application
Since its demonstration in the 1970s, the jigsaw classroom has been used in hundreds of classrooms settings across the nation, ranging from the elementary schools where it was first developed to high school and college classrooms (e.g., see Aronson, Blaney, Stephan, Rosenfield, & Sikes, 1977; Perkins & Saris, 2001; Slavin, 1980). Researchers know that the technique is effective, incidentally, because it has been carefully studied using solid research techniques. For example, in many cases, students in different classrooms who are covering the same material are randomly assigned to receive either traditional instruction (no intervention) or instruction by means of the jigsaw technique. Studies in real classrooms have consistently revealed enhanced academic performance, reductions in stereotypes and prejudice, and improved social relations.
Aronson is not the only researcher to explore the merits of cooperative learning techniques. Shortly after Aronson and colleagues began to document the power of the jigsaw classroom, Robert Slavin, Elizabeth Cohen and others began to document the power of other kinds of cooperative learning programs (see Cohen & Lotan, 1995; Slavin, 1980; Slavin, Hurley, & Chamberlain, 2003). As of this writing, some kind of systematic cooperative learning technique had been applied in about 1500 schools across the country, and the technique appears to be picking up steam. Perhaps the only big question that remains about cooperative learning techniques such as the jigsaw classroom is why these techniques have not been implemented even more broadly than they already have.
Have Your Children Had Their Anti-Smoking Shots?
Findings
In the early 1960s, social psychologist William McGuire published some classic papers showing that it is surprisingly easy to change people’s attitudes about things that we all wholeheartedly accept as true. For example, for speakers armed with a little knowledge of persuasion, it is remarkably easy to convince almost anyone that brushing one’s teeth is not such a great idea. McGuire’s insight into this curious phenomenon was that it is easy to change people’s minds about things that they have always taken for granted precisely because most people have little if any practice resisting attacks on attitudes that no one ever questions.
Taking this logic a little further, McGuire asked if it might be possible to train people to resist attacks on their beliefs by giving them practice at resisting arguments that they could easily refute. Specifically, McGuire drew an analogy between biological resistance to disease and psychological resistance to persuasion. Biological inoculation works by exposing people to a weakened version of an attacking agent such as a virus. People’s bodies produce antibodies that make them immune to the attacking agent, and when a full-blown version of the agent hits later in life, people win the biological battle against the full-blown disease. Would giving people a little practice fending off a weak attack on their attitudes make it easier for people to resist stronger attacks on their attitudes that come along later? The answer turns out to be yes. McGuire coined the phrase attitude inoculation to refer to the process of resisting strong persuasive arguments by getting practice fighting off weaker versions of the same arguments.
Significance
Once attitude inoculation had been demonstrated consistently in the laboratory, researchers decided to see if attitude inoculation could be used to help parents, teachers, and social service agents deal with a pressing social problem that kills about 440,000 people in the U.S. every year: cigarette smoking. Smoking seemed like an ideal problem to study because children below the age of 10 or 12 almost always report negative attitudes about smoking. However, in the face of peer pressure to be cool, many of these same children become smokers during middle to late adolescence.
Practical Application
Adolescents change their attitudes about smoking (and become smokers) because of the power of peer pressure. Researchers quickly realized that if they could inoculate children against pro-smoking arguments (by teaching them to resist pressure from their peers who believed that smoking is “cool”), they might be able to reduce the chances that children would become smokers. A series of field studies of attitude inoculation, conducted in junior high schools and high schools throughout the country, demonstrated that brief interventions using attitude inoculation dramatically reduced rates of teenage smoking. For instance, in an early study by Cheryl Perry and colleagues (1980), high school students inoculated junior high schools students against smoking by having the younger kids role-play the kind of situations they might actually face with a peer who pressured them to try a cigarette. For example, when a role-playing peer called a student “chicken” for not being willing to try an imaginary cigarette, the student practiced answers such as “I’d be a real chicken if I smoked just to impress you.” The kids who were inoculated in this way were about half as likely to become smokers as were kids in a very similar school who did not receive this special intervention.
Public service advertising campaigns have also made use of attitude inoculation theory by encouraging parents to help their children devise strategies for saying no when peers encourage them to smoke. Programs that have made whole or partial use of attitude inoculation programs have repeatedly documented the effectiveness of attitude inoculation to prevent teenage smoking, to curb illicit drug use, and to reduce teenage pregnancies and sexually transmitted diseases. In comparison with old-fashioned interventions such as simple education about the risks of smoking or teenage pregnancy, attitude inoculation frequently reduces risky behaviors by 30-70% (see Botvin et al., 1995; Ellickson & Bell, 1990; Perry et al., 1980). As psychologist David Myers put it in his popular social psychology textbook, “Today any school district or teacher wishing to use the social psychological approach to smoking prevention can do so easily, inexpensively, and with the hope of significant reductions in future smoking rates and health costs.” So the next time you think about inoculating kids to keep them healthy, make sure you remember that one of the most important kinds of inoculation any kid can get is a psychological inoculation against tobacco.
Early Intervention Can Improve Low-Income Children’s Cognitive Skills and Academic Achievement
National Head Start program conceptualized while psychologists were beginning to study preventive intervention for young children living in poverty.
Findings
As a group, children who live in poverty tend to perform worse in school than do children from more privileged backgrounds. For the first half of the 20th century, researchers attributed this difference to inherent cognitive deficits. At the time, the prevailing belief was that the course of child development was dictated by biology and maturation. By the early 1960s, this position gave way to the notion popularized by psychologists such as J. McVicker Hunt and Benjamin Bloom that intelligence could rather easily be shaped by the environment. There was very little research at the time to support these speculations but a few psychologists had begun to study whether environmental manipulation could prevent poor cognitive outcomes. Results of studies by psychologists Susan Gray and Rupert Klaus (1965), Martin Deutsch (1965) and Bettye Caldwell and former U.S. Surgeon General Julius Richmond (1968) supported the notion that early attention to physical and psychological development could improve cognitive ability.
Significance
These preliminary results caught the attention of Sargent Shriver, President Lyndon Johnson’s chief strategist in implementing an arsenal of antipoverty programs as part of the War on Poverty. His idea for a school readiness program for children of the poor focused on breaking the cycle of poverty. Shriver reasoned that if poor children could begin school on an equal footing with wealthier classmates, they would have a better of chance of succeeding in school and avoiding poverty in adulthood. He appointed a planning committee of 13 professionals in physical and mental health, early education, social work, and developmental psychology. Their work helped shape what is now known as the federal Head Start program.
The three developmental psychologists in the group were Urie Bronfenbrenner, Mamie Clark, and Edward Zigler. Bronfenbrenner convinced the other members that intervention would be most effective if it involved not just the child but the family and community that comprise the child-rearing environment. Parent involvement in school operations and administration were unheard of at the time, but it became a cornerstone of Head Start and proved to be a major contributor to its success. Zigler had been trained as a scientist and was distressed that the new program was not going to be field-tested before its nationwide launch. Arguing that it was not wise to base such a massive, innovative program on good ideas and concepts but little empirical evidence, he insisted that research and evaluation be part of Head Start. When he later became the federal official responsible for administering the program, Zigler (often referred to as the “father of Head Start”) worked to cast Head Start as a national laboratory for the design of effective early childhood services.
Although it is difficult to summarize the hundreds of empirical studies of Head Start outcomes, Head Start does seem to produce a variety of benefits for most children who participate. Although some studies have suggested that the intellectual advantages gained from participation in Head Start gradually disappear as children progress through elementary school, some of these same studies have shown more lasting benefits in the areas of school achievement and adjustment.
Practical Application
Head Start began as a great experiment that over the years has yielded prolific results. Some 20 million children and families have participated in Head Start since the summer of 1965; current enrollment approaches one million annually, including those in the new Early Head Start that serves families with children from birth to age 3. Psychological research on early intervention has proliferated, creating an expansive literature and sound knowledge base. Many research ideas designed and tested in the Head Start laboratory have been adapted in a variety of service delivery programs. These include family support services, home visiting, a credentialing process for early childhood workers, and education for parenthood. Head Start’s efforts in preschool education spotlighted the value of school readiness and helped spur today’s movement toward universal preschool.
Family-Like Environment Better for Troubled Children and Teens
The Teaching-Family Model changes bad behavior through straight talk and loving relationships.
Findings
In the late 1960′s, psychologists Elaine Phillips, Elery Phillips, Dean Fixsen, and Montrose Wolf developed an empirically tested treatment program to help troubled children and juvenile offenders who had been assigned to residential group homes. These researchers combined the successful components of their studies into the Teaching-Family Model, which offers a structured treatment regimen in a family-like environment. The model is built around a married couple (teaching-parents) that lives with children in a group home and teaches them essential interpersonal and living skills. Not only have teaching parents’ behaviors and techniques been assessed for their effectiveness, but they have also been empirically tested for whether children like them. Teaching-parents also work with the children’s parents, teachers, employers, and peers to ensure support for the children’s positive changes. Although more research is needed, preliminary results suggest that, compared to children in other residential treatment programs, children in Teaching-Family Model centers have fewer contacts with police and courts, lower dropout rates, and improved school grades and attendance.
Couples are selected to be teaching-parents based on their ability to provide individualized and affirming care. Teaching-parents then undergo an intensive year-long training process. In order to maintain their certification, teaching-parents and Teaching-Family Model organizations are evaluated every year, and must meet the rigorous standards set by the Teaching-Family Association.
Significance
The Teaching-Family Model is one of the few evidence-based residential treatment programs for troubled children. In the past, many treatment programs viewed delinquency as an illness, and therefore placed children in institutions for medical treatment. The Teaching-Family Model, in contrast, views children’s behavior problems as stemming from their lack of essential interpersonal relationships and skills. Accordingly, the Teaching-Family Model provides children with these relationships and teaches them these skills, using empirically validated methods. With its novel view of problem behavior and its carefully tested and disseminated treatment program, the Teaching-Family Model has helped to transform the treatment of behavioral problems from impersonal interventions at large institutions to caring relationships in home and community settings. The Teaching-Family Model has also demonstrated how well-researched treatment programs can be implemented on a large scale. Most importantly, the Teaching-Family Model has given hope that young people with even the most difficult problems or behaviors can improve the quality of their lives and make contributions to society.
Practical Application
In recent years, the Teaching-Family Model has been expanded to include foster care facilities, home treatment settings, and even schools. The Teaching-Family Model has also been adapted to accommodate the needs of physically, emotionally, and sexually abused children; emotionally disturbed and autistic children and adults; medically fragile children; and adults with disabilities. Successful centers that have been active for over 30 years include the Bringing it All Back Home Study Center in North Carolina, the Houston Achievement Place in Texas, and the Girls and Boys Town in Nebraska. Other Teaching-Family Model organizations are in Alberta (Canada), Arkansas, Hawaii, Kansas, Michigan, Mississippi, New Jersey, North Carolina, Ohio, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, Utah, Virginia, and Wisconsin.
Believing You Can Get Smarter Makes You Smarter
Thinking about intelligence as changeable and malleable, rather than stable and fixed, results in greater academic achievement, especially for people whose groups bear the burden of negative stereotypes about their intelligence.
Findings
Can people get smarter? Are some racial or social groups smarter than others? Despite a lot of evidence to the contrary, many people believe that intelligence is fixed, and, moreover, that some racial and social groups are inherently smarter than others. Merely evoking these stereotypes about the intellectual inferiority of these groups (such as women and Blacks) is enough to harm the academic perfomance of members of these groups. Social psychologist Claude Steele and his collaborators (2002) have called this phenomenon “stereotype threat.”
Yet social psychologists Aronson, Fried, and Good (2001) have developed a possible antidote to stereotype threat. They taught African American and European American college students to think of intelligence as changeable, rather than fixed – a lesson that many psychological studies suggests is true. Students in a control group did not receive this message. Those students who learned about IQ’s malleability improved their grades more than did students who did not receive this message, and also saw academics as more important than did students in the control group. Even more exciting was the finding that Black students benefited more from learning about the malleable nature of intelligence than did White students, showing that this intervention may successfully counteract stereotype threat.
Significance
This research showed a relatively easy way to narrow the Black-White academic achievement gap. Realizing that one’s intelligence may be improved may actually improve one’s intelligence, especially for those whose groups are targets of stereotypes alleging limited intelligence (e.g., Blacks, Latinos, and women in math domains.)
Practical Application
Blackwell, Dweck, and Trzesniewski (2002) recently replicated and applied this research with seventh-grade students in New York City. During the first eight weeks of the spring term, these students learned about the malleability of intelligence by reading and discussing a science-based article that described how intelligence develops. A control group of seventh-grade students did not learn about intelligence’s changeability, and instead learned about memory and mnemonic strategies. As compared to the control group, students who learned about intelligence’s malleability had higher academic motivation, better academic behavior, and better grades in mathematics. Indeed, students who were members of vulnerable groups (e.g., those who previously thought that intelligence cannot change, those who had low prior mathematics achievement, and female students) had higher mathematics grades following the intelligence-is-malleable intervention, while the grades of similar students in the control group declined. In fact, girls who received the intervention matched and even slightly exceeded the boys in math grades, whereas girls in the control group performed well below the boys.
These findings are especially important because the actual instruction time for the intervention totaled just three hours. Therefore, this is a very cost-effective method for improving students’ academic motivation and achievement.
Cited Research
Aronson, J., Fried, C. B., & Good, C. (2001). Reducing the effects of stereotype threat on African American college students by shaping theories of intelligence. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 1-13.
Steele, C. M., Spencer, S. J., & Aronson, J. (2002), Contending with group image: The psychology of stereotype and social identity threat. In Mark P. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology, Vol. 34, pp. 379-440. San Diego, CA: Academic Press, Inc.
Additional Sources
Blackwell, L., Dweck, C., & Trzesniewski, K. (2002). Achievement across the adolescent transition: A longitudinal study and an intervention. Manuscript in preparation.
Dweck, C., & Leggett, E. (1988). A social-cognitive approach to motivation and personality. Psychological Review, 95, 256-273.